NATIONALISM AND THE INDIAN PENTECOSTAL CHURCH OF GOD

Roger E. Hedlund

Missiologist, Mylapore Institute For Indigenous Studies, and Managing Editor, Dharma Deepika, Chennai, India

Published in Global Missiology, Featured Articles, April 2006, www.globalmissiology.org

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INTRODUCTION

THE INDIAN PENTECOSTAL CHURCH OF GOD

PENTECOSTAL EXPANSION IN KERALA

CONCLUSION

ENDNOTES

INTRODUCTION

Christianity has existed in India from the early beginnings of the Christian era, centuries before the arrival of the Christian faith in much of Europe.  Christianity is an ancient religion of India and an important part of the Indian heritage.  This early Christianity, associated with the Thomas tradition, has come down to us in an amalgomated version following the arrival of persecuted Syrian Christians in the fourth century and their integration with the existing Indian Christian community in Kerala.  Our knowledge of the earliest Indian Christianity therefore is scant.  Moreover, with the arrival of the Portuguese, traces of this earliest indigenous tradition appear to have disappeared.  As Metropolitan Chrysostom observes, the earliest cultural and liturgical expressions must have been Malayalam, but following the Portuguese only the Syriac remained. 

Syriac was not our original language for worship.  When St. Thomas came, it must have been Malayalam here.  Clearly, no group of people came with him.  In any case, we have no clear idea about the worship forms during the early centuries;... the Portuguese, when they came, destroyed whatever there waqy.  Syriac came in with our Persian relationship.  Their bishops didn’t learn Malayalam, and they imposed Syriac on us.[1]

Foundations for an indigenous Indian Christianity were laid by Roberto de Nobili, Bartolomeo Ziegenbalg and William Carey, each of whom presented a challenge to colonialism.  De Nobili[2]  at Madurai immersed himself in the local Tamil culture making radical adaptions inculturating and Tamilising the Christian faith.  Ziegenbalg[3]  at Tranquebar laid the foundations of an indigenous Church by introducing a three-fold Pietist model of mission consisting of Bible translation, schools and a simple expression of a local church.  Carey[4]  and the Serampore Mission pioneered vernacular education, agricultural improvement, projects for the economic recovery of the poor, and agitated for radical social reforms along with engaging in Bible translation and production of Bengali literature and preaching of the gospel--activities contributing to a Bengali cultural renewal and eventually to the Indian national movement.  Carey’s work was “an important influence in facilitating the Indian Renaissance.”[5]   Missionary initiatives on behalf of the poor and opposing the rapacious deeds of the East India Company thus presented a critique of colonialism.  Through Bible translation, the simple plan of a local church, and the training of local believers, Carey as well as Ziegenbalg aimed for an Indian Church indigenous to the local cultures and not a replication of European Christianity. 

That the outcome was something less was due to successors of a lesser sensitivity and different vision.  The impulse for an indigenous church was lost in the next generations.  But a degree of recovery of the indigenous intent is found in emerging new Christian movements of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. 

THE INDIAN PENTECOSTAL CHURCH OF GOD

New Christian movements can be understood as expressions of nationalism in response to colonialism.  A case in point is the Indian Pentecostal Church of God founded in Kerala by Pastor K. E. Abraham (1899-1974).[6]   Origins of the IPC are closely tied to the story of the founder.  The Rev. Dr. K.E. Abraham was born on 1st March, 1899, to a Syrian Orthodox Christian family in Kerala.  Converted and baptized in 1915, he became active in the Brethren Movement conducting meetings in various places in Kerala.  In 1921 he married a Pentecostal lady, and in 1924 he received the baptism of the Holy Spirit and became an active church planter.  During this time he came in contact with the American missionary Rev. Robert F. Cook of the Church of God (Cleveland).  They worked together until 1930 when they separated over issues of independence of the Indian churches and the question of voluntary versus paid mission workers. 

K.E. Abraham prefered a system of  voluntary workers.  Until today the IPC has no salary system, all support is from the local church.  A Bible school was begun in 1930.  In 1934 the name was changed from South Indian Pentecostal Church to the Indian Pentecostal Church of God. 

The ministry spread outside Kerala.  M.K. Chacko went to Delhi, Kurien Thomas to Ittarsi, K.T. Thomas and Captain Samuel to North India, and Pastors P.M. Samuel and P.T. Chacko  to Andhra Pradesh.  By 1974 there were 450 self-supporting churches in Andhra, and 900 churches throughout India.  Some 90 percent of the converts are reported to be from Hindu backgrounds.   By 1997 IPC had more than 3000 local churches in India including 1700 in Kerala, 700 in Andhra, 210 in Tamil Nadu, 70 in Karnataka, and smaller numbers of churches in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and several regions of North India and the North East.  

IPC is considered the largest indigenous Pentecostal movement in India.  It continues to grow at the average rate of one new church per week.  Dedicated young people, trained in the Bible school, sent to unevangelized fields, are the key to this continued expansion.

Today IPC congregations are found overseas in the Gulf States, USA, Canada, and Australia.  Organizational structure consists of regional Councils and a General Council over all.  The denomination is served by Hebron Bible College, Salem Bible College and nine affiliated Bible schools, the Bahya Kerala Mission Board, the Pentecostal Young People’s Association, a Women’s Auxiliary, and various publications.

The IPC central working office is at Hebronpuram, Kumbanad, Kerala, but the registered office is at Eluru, West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh.  According to its Memorandum of Association and Constitution, “The Indian Pentecostal Church is a group of indigenous independent Churches established in several parts of India having no foreign mission control but enjoying the spiritual fellowship of all Pentecostal groups of the same doctrine found all over the world.” 

IPC did not refuse foreign assistance.  In 1938 a place of worship was built in Trivandrum with financial help from churches in Sweden.  The essential issue was that there should be no foreign mission control.

K.E. Abraham believed that ministry could progress better without foreign missionary domination.  Self-supporting churches should be led by self-sacrificing national ministers.  Leadership should not be in the hands of foreigners.  Local churches should manage their own affairs and hold their own property.  “For evangelism to be effective, Churches in Asia, must, of necessity, be indigenous and indepndent--independent Christian Churches in independent India.”[7]   The IPC is an important example of Christian Nationalism in India prior to India’s Independence.   The IPC thus challenged the Assemblies of God and Church of God which were of missionary origins in India.

In 1935 a North-South split occured between believers from Trivandrum (“South”) and members from Central Travancore (“North”).  A temporary reunion took place in 1950, but soon IPC divided into two.  From this division emerged the Sharon Pentecostal Fellowship and other independent movements.

The founder toured several countries and conducted meetings in several denominations.  He was especially well-received in Sweden and other Scandinavian countries, and was awarded an honorary Doctor of Divinity degree at St. Louis, USA.   He died at Kumbanad, Kerala, in December 1974, at the age of 75.

What Sara Abraham states in her evaluation of the Indian Pentecostal Church of God could be applied to other churches of indigenous origins:  Indian churches and institutions should be under the control of Indians, guided by Indian leaders.[8]   The nationalist impulse was expressed in the formation of new or “break-away” structures and churches in Kerala.  Kerala Christians sometimes joined the new independent churches as an expression of their Indian nationalism.

PENTECOSTAL EXPANSION IN KERALA

Part of the Pentecostal expansion in Kerala is due to outreach ministries to tribals and other deprived populations.  Pentecostals have established many churches among hill tribes and estate labourers in remote areas where they have found abundant response.[9]   One example is the Gospel In Action Fellowship founded in 1982 for outreach to the slum dwellers and beggars of Ernakulam District.[10]   The holistic ministry of GIAF cares for both physical and spiritual needs of these social rejects whose personal and social transformation has  made a significant impact in the larger community.  Not surprisingly, GIAF has seen numbers of new churches formed.[11]

A 1980 publication listed 30 Pentecostal denominations in Kerala,[12]  many of indigenous origins.  Others came into existence in the decade following.  A recent list has 10 major Pentecostal denominations, five of which are said to be of indigenous origins, and 40 smaller inigenous Pentecostal denominations.[13]   In addition to the IPC and Sharon Fellowship described above, major denominations include the WME Church of God founded in 1969, head office at Kariamplave, with 300 affiliated churches, the New India Church of God founded in 1970, head office at Chingavanam, with 300 affiliated churches, and the New India Bible Church founded in 1975, head office at Paippad, with 110 affiliated churches.

The 40 smaller denominations range from the United Pentecostal Church, founded in 1942 and headquartered at Adoor, with 92 affiliated churches, to the most recent International Gospel Assembly founded in 1997 at Pakkil with 19 affiliated churches.  Other smaller denominations ranked according to date of origin together with headquarter and affiliated churches are as follows:  All One In Christ Church Fellowship, 1948, Thrissur, 7 churches;  Zion Sangam, 1952, Vellarada, 65 churches; Pentecost Church of God, 1953, Mavelikkara, 67 churches;  Full Gospel Church of God, 1956, Thrissur, 17 churches; Church of God Prayer Tower, 1957, Trivandrum, 25 churches; Church of God, 1961, Kalayapuram, 30 churches; International Zion Assembly, 1962, Kanjiramakulam, 43 churches; Church of God, 1966, Paippad, 6 churches; Independent Church of God, 1967, Thalapady, 17 churches; Full Gospel Church of God, 1968, Thrissur, 19 churches; South India Apostolic Church of God, 1968, Kalliyoor, 12 churches; India Full Gospel Church of God, 1968, Vellassery, 20 churches; International Church of God, 1969, Pathanamthitta, 8 churches; India Pentecostal Assembly, 1970, Kuzhikala, 18 churches; Jesus For India, 1970, Vakathanam, 40 churches; Pentecost Maranatha Gospel Church, 1972, Trivandrum, 40 churches; All India Church of God, 1976, Kottayam, 15 churches; Bible Believer’s Assembly, 1976, Vagamon, 19 churches; Full Gospel Church of God in Christ, 1977, Kottayam, 5 churches; Philadelphia Church of God, 1978, Eraviperoor, 60 churches; Church of God, 1978, Vallamkulam, 4 churches; Church of God, 1980, Kallumala, 40 churches; Fellowship of Independent Full Gospel Church, 1981, Kottayam, 22 churches; World Missionary Evangelism Church, 1981, Trivandrum, 43 churches; Global Missions India, Elappara; Pentecostal Church of God, Punalur; All India Christian Fellowship, 1987, Kandala, 6 churches; Kerala Pentecost Church, 1987, Kottayam, 15 churches; India Zion Pentecostal Church, 1987, Kottayam, 4 churches; Mount Sinai Church of God, 1987, Vazhoor, 8 churches; India Revival Assembly, 1989, Kottayam, 3 churches; Harvest International Ministerial Fellowship, 1989, Mundakayam, 29 churches; Pentecostal Church of India, 1989, Thiruvalla, 4 churches; Bethel Gospel Assembly, 1989, Pathanapuram, 52 churches; World Christian Fllowship, 1990, Kottayam, 9 churches; The Independent Pentecostal Assembly, 1990, Kottayam, 15 churches; Church of God, 1995, Kumbanad, 85 churches; Church of God, 1996, Pampady, 40 churches.

Proximity of location and similarity of name suggests that some of

the smaller independent denominations may be the result of splits from other churches.[14]  

As noted, freedom from centralized control has been a hallmark of the Pentecostal Movement.  Combined with the three-self church principles propagated by Melvin Hodges through the Assemblies of God, this liberty has provided Indian Pentecostalism a potent formula for dynamic growth and leadership development.  Taken as a whole the smaller denominations comprise more than 1,087 local congregations.  Combined with the 2,650 congregations of the five major Pentecostal bodies presents a total of 3,737 local churches of various sizes which represents a considerable section of Kerala Christianity.

Indeed Pentecostalism during the twentieth century has emerged from the status of a despised sect to become a major tradition of Christianity.  With 193 million (19.3 crores) members in 1990, the Pentecostals were the largest Protestant group of Churches in the world.[15]   In addition to these denominational Pentecostals if one includes mainline Charismatic Protestants and Catholics, the total is more than 372 million (37 crores) which is 21.4 percent of the world’s Christians.[16]   Also in 1990 out of an estimated 4 million (40 lakh) full-time Christian workers, 1.1 million (11 lakh) were Pentecostal-Charismatics.  “Fully one fourth of all full-time Christian workers in the world are from the Pentecostal-charismatic persuasion.”[17]   Hollenweger, who devotes considerable attention to Africa, Latin America and Korea, makes little reference to  Pentecostals in India.[18]   Yet part of this expansion is taking place in India where Pentecostals are active and growing.

Pentecostal and Charismatic churches comprise the fastest growing segment of Christianity in South India.[19]   Kerala is the home of numbers of Pentecostal denominations many of whom have spread beyond the borders of Kerala into various regions of India, South Asia and overseas.  It is important therefore to ponder the implications.

Theological educators in the past were prone to shun Pentecostals.  Pentecostal beliefs and practices have been ridiculed in ecumenical and evangelical classrooms.  In some colleges Pentecostal students were objects of faculty gossip and discrimination.  This has begun to change.         

Pentecostals in Kerala and elsewhere have begun their own Bible colleges and seminaries.  The earliest in Kerala were Mount Zion Bible College, Mulakkuzha, and Mizpeh Bible College, Thrissur, both founded in 1922.  Bethel Bible College, Punalur, founded in 1927, is the oldest existing Bible school of the Assemblies of God outside North America.[20]   Hebron Bible College of the IPC at Kumbanad dates to 1930.  A recent list[21] of Pentecostal Bible colleges in Kerala contains 60 institutions two of which, Faith Theological Seminary at Manakkala and Gospel For Asia Biblical Seminary at Kuttapuzha, are affiliated to Serampore University.  Five others[22] are accredited by the Asia Theological Association, Bangalore, and ten[23] are members of the Association of Pentecostal Theological Institutes.  Four offer either the B.D. or M.Div. degree,[24] and 18 offer an undergraduate B.Th. degree.[25]    An assortment of certificates are offered by others.  While enrolments, quality and levels of training vary, it is obvious that these 60 training institutions produce a large number of Christian workers for ministries in and beyond Kerala.

Indian Pentecostal theologians have been trained in some of the world’s finest universities.  In Kerala the Faith Theological Seminary for many years has been affiliated to Serampore University.  Numerous other such institutions exist in Kerala, many with well-qualified faculty, providing basic theological training for hundreds of teachers, preachers, pastors, evangelists, missionaries and other workers for the Pentecostal movement. 

At long last this dynamic growth has caught the attention of theological educators in India.  Pentecostals today are included among the theologians of India!  Rejection has changed to acceptance.  Pentecostal institutions are accepted for Serampore affiliation and for ATA (Asia Theological Association) membership.  Pentecostal success has occasioned academic recognition.  Will it also bring theological renewal?

Some theologians discern in Pentecostalism a potential corrective function.  “Pentecostalism represents a restoration of the experiential dimension of the Christian faith in the wake of its scholastic reduction.”[26]     Non-Western Christianity has great capacity for removing  accretions and  correcting Western distortions.  Pomerville mentions indigenous  Pentecostals as an emerging “third force” in world Christianity whose theology and witness respond to issues outside the scope of traditional Western considerations.[27]  

Today’s Pentecostals participate in ecumenical dialogue and teach in some of the renowned theological faculties of Asia and the West.  A number of distinguished biblical scholars, historians and theologians are Pentecostals.[28]

In India, emerging young Pentecostal theologians from Kerala have the prospect of pointing indigenous theology in new directions.  Consultation and collaboration between Pentecostals and non-Pentecostals is one indication.  Evangelicals and Charismatics need each other, states David Shibley.[29]  In India younger Evangelical and Pentecostal leaders realize the same.  Pentecostals at the close of the 20th century are found in leadership roles in a number of Indian evangelical institutions and organizations.

Despite some problems of missionary paternalism and dependency, the three-self “indigenous principles” policy of the Assemblies of God seem to have facilitated the development of indigenous Pentecostal leadership.  Creation of regional Bible schools was an important aspect of Pentecostal strategy.   Bethel Bible Institute at Punalur is the oldest existing Bible school of the Assemblies of God worldwide.[30]   Without a doubt these Bible colleges have been a catalyst in training leaders many of whom in turn have fostered indigenous Pentecostal movements in Kerala.  The role of the Bible school combined with the implementation of the indigenous policy produced a formula for Pentecostal expansion in Kerala. 

Hollenweger mentions the social implications of an oral liturgy.[31]   Pentecostal oral liturgy has enormous appeal in the oral cultures of India.  Is Pentecostal Christianity socially relevant?  Kerala may be the test.  Not infrequently Dalit and tribal converts in Kerala are found in Pentecostal churches.  A Church of the Poor!  Pentecostal theology emphasises the immediate presence of the Holy Spirit giving power for witness and service.  A Church with Spiritual Power!  The indigenous Pentecostals of Kerala are a Church in mission among the socially deprived and neglected, as the record shows.[32]

Nevertheless Kerala also has its own new religious movements of non-Christian derivations.  In his pioneering work on messianic movements in Indian religions, Fuchs includes only three from Kerala.  These are the Sri Narayana Guru movement among the Ezhavas or Izhavas, Chattampi Swamikal’s work among the Nairs, and a new sect among the Pulayas and Parayas led be Poykayil Johannan.[33] 

The well-known Sri Narayana Guru movement consisted of a popular religious uprising of the Izhava community.[34]  An oppressed community, a third of the population of the state, many benefited from the influx of evangelical missionaries and became Christians.  The perceived threat of Izhava conversion to Christianity led to a provision of jobs for backward communities, and the 1936 Temple Entry Proclamation brought an improved status within the Hindu system.[35]  

At a time in the nineteenth century when the Nair community was in a state of eclipse and economic decline, Chattampi Swamikal initiated a movement of social and religious revitalization among the Nairs.  His promotion of Dravidian culture opposed Brahminical supremacy on the one one hand and simultaneously resisted Christian influence on the other.[36]

Poykayil Johannan’s  Pratyaksha Paksha Deiva Sabha (God’s Church of Visible Salvation) was a distinctly Christian messianic movement in which the founder appeared as a special messenger of God on behalf of economically and socially deprived outcaste communities.  Before any improvements could be carried out, the founder died and the sect declined.[37]

More influencial was the movement known as “Yuomayam” founded by Justice Joseph[38] with distinct features of messianism in its belief system, as described elsewhere.

What Hesselgrave states regarding the growth of religious movements in  general is true of new religious sects as well as of churches of indigenous origins:  “to be widely accepted, a religious movement must be meaningful in terms of indigenous world views and values, and traditional ways.”[39]  Kerala is no exception. 

Kerala Christianity, of course, does not remain confined to Kerala.  Nor to Keralites!  A global Kerala Christian diaspora is one factor.  A vigorous indigenous missionary outreach is another.  Out of  57 indigenous Pentecostal-Charismatic mission agencies in India, 29 were started by Kerala Christians.[40]   Six of these agencies are based in Kerala and one in Tamil Nadu, but 22 are headquartered in North India where they are engaged in vigorous witness and outreach.

CONCLUSION

Involvement of Pentecostal Christians as well as of other movements are manifestations of an informed social conscience which also accompanied the Freedom Movement leading to India’s independence and emergence as a modern State. 

New indigenous Christian movements are expressions of Indian identity.  K. E. Abraham of the Indian Pentecostal Church of God stands as an example of Indian Christian nationalism.  Separation from the Assemblies of God and the Church of God ostensively was due to a disagreement over policies and especially the control of finances and personnel by the missionaries.  But perhaps more deeply may be discerned the Indian Christian nationalist impulse.  “He welcomed good ideas from the West, but held that the Indian churches should still be completely oriental, and managed by Indians.”[41]  

From the IPC initiative have sprung numbers of parallel bodies in Kerala and beyond, expressions of Indian Christian indigeneity sharing the ethos of Indian nationalism.  New Christian movements led by Indian nationalists are a testimonial to the Christian’s dual participation in the Kingdom of God as patriotic citizens of India.

Editor’s Note: This article is also appearing in the December 2005 issue of INDIAN CHURCH HISTORY REVIEW - posted in Global Missiology with permissions from both the author and the editor.

Endnotes


[1] Jesudas M. Athyal and John J. Thatamanil (eds.), Metropolitan Chrysostom on Mission in the Market Place,  Tiruvalla, Christava Sahitya Samithy, 2002, p.55.

[2]  See recent studies on de Nobili, viz. S. Rajamanickam, Roberto de Nobili on Indian Customs, An Introduction by S. Rajamanickam and Translation of His Informatio,  a Report about some Indian Social Customs; Palayamkottai, De Nobili Research Institute, St. Zavier's College, 1989;  A. Sauliére, His Star in the East, Revised & Re-edited by Fr. S. Rajamnickam, Anand, Gujarat Sahitya Prakash, 1995;  Thomas Anchukandam, Roberto de Nobili’s Responsio (1610): A Vindication of Inculturation and Adaptation, Bangalore, Kristu Jyoti Publications, 1996; Preaching Wisdom to the Wise, Three Treatises by Roberto de Nobili, S.J., Missionary and Scholar in 17th Century India, Translated and Introduced by Anand Amaladass, S.J. and Francis X. Clooney, S.J., St. Louis, Institute of Jesuit Sources, 2000.

[3] Hugald Grafé,The History of Christianity in Tamilnadu, History of Christianity in India,        Vol.4, Part 2.,  Bangalore:  Church History Association of India, 1982, p.188.  Also see  Daniel Jeyaraj, “Early Tamil Bible Translation in Tranquebar,” Dharma Deepika  June 1997, 67-77; and Daniel Jeyaraj, “Dual Identity of Christians in Tranquebar,” Dharma Deepika December 1997, 9-18.       

[4] See various essays in the compendium, Carey’s Obligation and India’s Renaissance, edited by J.T.K. Daniel and R.E. Hedlund, Serampore, Council of Serampore College, 1993, viz. N.R. Ray, “William Carey: A Linguist with a Difference” 153-156; S.K. Chatterjee, “William Carey and the Linguistic Renaissance in India” 157-175; Christopher Arangaden, “Carey’s Legacy of Bible Translation” 176-186; Binoy Bhusan Roy, “William Carey and the Asiatic Society” 246-255; A.K. Ghosh, “William Carey: The Botanist” 259-263; Ashish Kumar Massey & June Hedlund, “William Carey and the Emergence of Modern India” 299-308; Evangeline Rajkumar, “William Carey’s Mission of Compassion and Justice” 323-333; Ruth Mangalwadi, “William Carey and the Emancipation of Women 334-345; M.M. Thomas, “William Carey’s Vision of the Gospel, Its Relevance in India Today,” 346-353.

[5] Malay Dewanji, William Carey and the Indian Renaissance, Delhi, ISPCK, 1996, p.43.

[6] Information about IPC is compiled from a number of sources.  These include:  IPC, “A Handbook of the Indian Pentecostal Church of God,”  Kumbanad, Kerala,  IPC General Secretary, Hebronpuram,1994; Samuel Mathew,  “Biblical Leadership:  A Theology of Servanthood for the Church in India,”  M.Th. in Missiology thesis, Fuller Theological Seminary, 1989; Abraham Thottumkal Pothen, “The Indian Pentecostal Church of God and Its Contribution to Church Growth,”  M.A. Missiology thesis, Fuller Theological Seminary, 1988; Saju, Kerala Penthecosthu Charithram, Kottayam:  Good News Publications.  1994; P.J. Titus “IPC Movement in Andhra Pradesh,” unpublished paper, 1997; Habel G. Verghese, K.E. Abraham:  An Apostle From Modern India, Kadambanad, Kerala:  Christian Literature Service of India, 1974.

[7] Habel G. Verghese, K.E. Abraham:  An Apostle From Modern India, Kadambanad, Kerala:  Christian Literature Service of India, 1974, p.102.

[8] Sara Abraham, “A Critical Evaluation of the Indian Pentecostal Church of God--Its Origin and Development in Kerala,” M.Th. Thesis, Serampore University, March 1990.

[9] Abraham T. Pothen, “The Indian Pentecostal Church of God nd Its Contribution to Church Growth,” M.A. thesis, Fuller Theological Seminary, 1988, p.38. 

[10] Abraham T. Pothen, “Indigenous Cross-Cultural Missions in India and Their Contribution to Church Growth:  With Special Emphasis on Pentecostal-Charismatic Missions,” Ph.D. dissertation, Fuller Theological Seminary, 1990, pp.215-237.

[11] Ibid., pp.232,236.

[12] K.V. Daniel, Keralathile Pentecosthu Sabhakal,  Trichur, 1986.

[13] Information provided by Alexander Philip, 19 January 1999, in connection with the Churches of Indigenous Origin (CIO) Project.  See the author’s publication, Quest for Identity:  India’s Churches of Indigenous Origin, The ‘Little Tradition’ in Indian Christianity, Delhi, ISPCK, 2000.

[14] Kerala has more than six different denominations bearing the “Church of God” designation, each one a separate entity.

[15] Vinson Synan, The Spirit Said ‘Grow’,  Monrovia, MARC, 1992, p.1.

[16] Ibid., pp.10-11.

[17] Ibid., p.13.

[18] Hollenweger, op.cit., pp.274,328.

[19] This statement is based upon observation and compilations carried out in South India.  See the author’s chapter, “Church Planting in Selected Indian Cities,” in Evangelization and Church Growth:  Issues from the Asian Context,  Madras, 1992, pp.187-212.

[20] Gary B. McGee, This Gospel Shall Be Preached, A History and Theology of Assemblies of God Foreign Missions to 1959,  Springfield, Gospel Publishing House, 1986, p.158. 

[21] Information provided by Dr. Alexander Philip, 19 January, 1999.

[22] Bethel Bible College, Punalur, New India Bible College, Paippad, Sharon Bible College, Thiruvalla, Peniel Bible Seminary and Missioary Training Centre, Keezhillam, and Ebenezer Institute and College, Kaduthuruthy.

[23] Zarephath Bible College, Thrissur, WME Bible College, Kariamplave, Bethlehem Christian Educational Centre, Karuvatta, Bersheba Christian Bible School, Kottarakkara, India Christian Fellowship Foundation Bible School, Renny, Everyone Crusade Misionary Bible Institute, Ezhamkulam, Malabar Bersheba Bible College, Kozhikode, Bersheba Bible College, Mavelikkara, and Bethany Bible College, Kottayam.

[24] Faith Theological Seminary, Manakkala, New India Bible College, Paippad, Peniel Bible Seminary and Missionary Training Centre, Keexhillam, and Gospel For Asia Biblical Seminary, Kuttapuzha.

[25] Bethel Bible College, Punalur, Faith Theological Seminary Manakkala, New India Bible College, Paippad, Sharon Bible College, Thiruvalla, Peniel Bible Seminary and Missionary Training Centre, Keexhillam, Mount Zion Bible College, Mulakkuzha, Bethel Seminary and Missionary Centre, Chengannur, Bethlehem Christian Educational Centre, Calvary Bible College, Pathanapuram, Ebenezer Institute and College, Kaduthuruthy, Zion Bible College, Mallappally, Malabar Bersheba Bible College, Kozhikode, Hebron Bible College, Kumbanad, Calicut Theological College, Calicut, Light for India Bible College, Trivandrum, Bethel Bible College, Kumbanad, Gospel For Asia Biblical Seminary Kuttapuzha, and Trinity Bible College, Calicut.

[26] Paul A. Pomerville, The Third Force in Missions, Peabody, Hendrickson, 1985, p.63.

[27] Ibid., pp.29,33,38.

[28] One thinks of Gordon Fee at Regent College in Canada, Russell Spittler and Cecil M. Robeck and more recently Veli-Mati Kärkkäinen at Fuller, Miroslav Volf of Yugoslavia and now Yale University, Peter Kuzmiç at Gordon-Conwell, Simon Chan at Trinity College in Singapore, and others.

[29] David Shibley, A Force in the Earth:  The Charismatic Renewal and World Evangelism, Florida, Creation House, 1989, p.27.

[30] Gary B. McGee, This Gospel Shall Be Preached:  A History  and Theology of Assemblies of God Foreign Missions to 1959,  Springfield, Gospel Publishing House, 1986, p.158.

[31] Hollenweger, op.cit., p.273.

[32] This statement is substantiated by the kinds of activities carried out by Pentecostal churches and agencies.

[33] Stephen Fuchs, Rebellious Prophets:  A Study of Messianic Movement in Indian Religions, Bombay, Asia Publishig House, 1965, pp.268-283.

[34] Cyriac K. Pullapilly,  “The Izhavas of Kerala and their Historic Struggle for Acceptance in the Hindu Society” in Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia  edited by Bardwell L. Smith,  Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1976, pp.24-46.

[35] Ibid., pp.25,32,41.

[36] Fuchs, op.cit., p.280.

[37] Ibid., p.282.

[38] Joseph Chakko Kurundamannil, “Yuomayam:  A Messianic Movement in Kerala, India,” D.Miss. dissertation, Fuller Theological Seminary, School of World Mission, 1978, p.41.

[39] David J Hesselgrave, “What Causes Religious Movements to Grow?” inDynamic Religious Movements  edited by David J. Hesselgrave, Grand Rapids, Baker, 1978, p.304.

[40] Pothen, op.cit., p.248.

[41] Habel G. Verghese, op.cit., p.105.

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